THE
PERIOD OF THE SUNGAS, THE KANVAS AND THE YAVANAS:
GENERAL
FEATURES OF THE PERIOD - The Mauryan period and especially the glorious reign
of Asoka marked the golden age of Buddhism, but the last two centuries of the
ancient era constituted a time of crisis during which the Good Law, even while
making progress, had to overcome numerous problems. These
originated for the most part from the political and social instability incurred
by the weak and decentralized kingdoms of the Sungas (c. 187-75 B.C.E) and the
Kanvas (75-30 B.C.E).
After
he had assassinated King Brhadratha, the Indian general Pusyamitra established
a kingdom on the ruins of the Mauryan empire, but its legitimacy was
immediately contested. Of brahmin birth, he relied on the brahmin clan to
remain in power and, on their advice, attempted to revive the old Vedic
customs. This whole policy ran counter to Buddhist interests, and Pusyamitra
alienated the disciples of the Sakya and the supporters of the Mauryan
legitimacy. To many of his subjects, he appeared as a usurper and persecutor.
The last Sungas and the Kanvas seem to have favoured the Bhagavata sect, the
protagonist of a powerful theist movement which developed around the cult of
the Hindu god Visnu. Rejected by the authorities in power, the Buddhists
nevertheless found sympathy and support among some Sunga vassals who had settled
in the Ganges basin, particularly at Bharhut, Kausambi, Ahicchatra and Mathura.
During
the same period, the Simhala kings of Ceylon had to defend their island against
repeated assaults by Dravidian invaders. However, the Good Law did not suffer
from these ceaseless wars. Among the eighteen princes who succeeded one another
in Anuradhapura between the years 200 B.C.E and 20 B.C.E, we note the names of
Dutthagamani (104-80 B.C.E) and Vattagamani (47, 32-20 B.C.E). Dutthagamani
appears as a national hero and a Buddhist holy one : after liberating the
territory from the grasp of the Damilas ( Tamils ), he constructed famous
monuments which are still the glory of Ceylon today : the Maricavatti Thupa
(Mirisaveti Dagaba), the Brazen Palace (Lohapadasa) and especially the
Mahathupa (Ruvanveli Dagaba), the consecration of which gave rise to ceremonies
of unprecedented sumptuousness. The reign of Vattagamani was marked by two important events in religious
history : the written compilation of the Pali canonical texts and the founding
of the thupa and vihara of Abhayagiri. Soon the monks of that monastery
separated from the Theras at the Mahiivihara in order to set up a rival school,
open to new ideas and tendencies.
However,
the most important political event was the active part played on Indian
territory by foreign invaders : the Yavanas or Greeks who came from Bactria.
Under the leadership of their kings, Euthydemus of Magnesia and Demetrius,
between the years 205 B.C.E and 167 B.C.E, the Bactrians seized practically the
entire Ganges basin. Even if internal dissensions prevented them from
maintaining their advanced positions, for nearly a century and a half they
remained in the region of North- West India where they established two rival
kingdoms : the western Greek kingdom (169-90 B.C.E) and the eastern Greek
kingdom (167-30 B.C.E). Weakened by incessant warfare, they were to succumb,
one after the other, to the hordes of Saka invaders at the end of the ancient
era.
The
Buddhist Samgha suffered the consequences of all these events, but continued to
advance without allowing itself to be stopped by the troubles :
1.
According to a well-established tradition, Pusyamitra subjected the bhiksus to
cruel persecution. Throughout his territory, he assassinated the religious,
destroyed stupas and set fire to monasteries. An examination of the sources
does not enable us to conclude that the persecution was general, but it is
certain that the Buddhists believed themselves to be pursued and hunted, and
that this state of mind induced in them a series of reactions which history
must take into account.
2.
The theist propaganda which began during the Sunga period in Visnuite circles
led the Good Law into further grave danger, the risks of which do not seem to
have been fully appreciated. Even though, Sakyamuni’s message was able to maintain
its doctrinal integrity, at least in the beginning, unrest fomented by Hindu
influences arose in some of the Buddhist sects and facilitated the advent of
the Mahayana.
3.
The obstacles which the Good Law encountered by no means interrupted the
missionary movement. Viharas which dated back to the beginning and samgharamas
founded in the Mauryan period were joined by new establishments about which
some information is available from a list of Sinhalese origin.
4.
The Sunga age also witnessed the birth and efflorescence of the ancient Central
Indian school of sculpture which had its main centres at Bharhut, Bodh-Gaya
,Sanci and Amaravati (first style). Quite apart from its artistic value, this
school of sculpture provides precious details on the religious beliefs and
ideals of the lay circles which ensured its success.
Finally,
we have to appraise the historical encounter between Buddhism and Hellenism,
and the attitude taken by the disciples of Sakyamuni when confronted by foreign
peoples. Generally speaking, the Greeks remained
faithful to the gods of their traditional pantheon, but the requirements of
policy induced some of them to become interested in Indian beliefs, and even
rely on them in order to assert their authority. The
Buddhists favoured this conciliation, thus demonstrating the universal nature
of their religion. The Indo-Greek king Menander is supposed to have been
converted to Buddhism and recent discoveries plead in favour of this tradition.
As
for the Indians in general and the Buddhists in particular, they showed
themselves refractory to foreign propaganda, and Hellenism had no effect on
their innermost mentality. Some inscriptions carved by petty monarchs,
strategoi or meridarchs who turned to Buddhism, show that the piety of these
was not free from self-interest and that, unlike their Indian co-religionists,
they had not fully understood the mechanism of the maturation of actions.
However, this concerned only a few individuals. The Greek influence on Buddhism
did not extend further than the field of artistic invention which was, however,
important; despite the controversy over the subject, it remains likely that the
idea of giving a human form to the Buddha in his last existence germinated in
the mind of a Greek artist, but it was not until the beginning of the Christian
era that it was applied generally. Furthermore, the Buddhist legend was enriched
by contact with the universal folklore which was nourished by the Mediterranean
world and the Near East.
HISTORICAL
FACTS:
THE
SUCCESSION OF PRINCES. - The fall of the Mauryas in about 187 B.C.E led to the
dissolution of the Indian empire. Foreign barbarians crossed the North-West
frontiers and established powerful kingdoms in Gandhara in the Kabul valley, at
Sakala in the Eastern Punjab, and in other places. The southern provinces
attained independence, and rivaled in power and splendour with what remained of
the Gangetic empire. Finally, in Madhyadesa, the Mauryas were replaced by a new
dynasty which was weak from the outset and had to share power with numerous
feudatories.
According
to the Purana (P., pp. 31-3), the Sunga kingdom lasted for 112 years (ca 187-75
B.C.E) and included ten sovereigns :
1.
Pusyamitra
reigned 36 years
2.
Agnimitra
reigned 8 years
3.
Vasujyestha
(Sujyestha) reigned 7 years
4.
Vasumitra
(Sumitra) reigned 10 years
5.
Bhadraka
(Odruka) reigned 2 (or 7) years
6.
Pulindaka
reigned 3 years
7.
Ghosa
reigned 3 years
8.
Vajramitra reigned 7 (or 9) years
9.
Bhaga (Bhlgavata) reigned 32 years
10. Devabhuti reigned 10 years
The sungas were succeeded by the
Kanvayanas or Sungabhrtyas who ruled for 45 years (75-30 B.C.E) and were four
in number :
1 .Vasudeva reigned 9 (or 5)
years
2. Bhumimittra reigned 14 (or 24)
years
3. Narayana reigned 12 years
4. Susarman reigned I0 (or 4)
years
PUSYAMITRA (187-151 B.C.E) - The founder of the Sunga
dynasty is known from some notes by grammarians (Panini, Astadhyayi, IV, 1
,117; Patanjali, Mahabhasya, 111, 2, 11 1, 111, 2, 123), a Sanskrit inscription
from Ayodhya (EI, XX, 1929, p. 54 sq.), certain passages in the
Malavikagnimitra by Kalidasa (ed. KARMAKAR Poona, 1950, pp. 9-1 1;111-12). a
short remark by Bana in his Harsacarita (ed. PARAB Bombay,1946, pp. 198-9), some lines in
the Purana (P., pp. 31-3) and quite a large number of Buddhist sources :
Asokavadana (T 2042, ch. 3, p. 11 la sq.; T. 2043, k.5, p. 149a sq.;
Divyavadana, p. 433), Mahavibhasa (T 1545, ch. 125, p. 655bc),
Sariputraparipeeha (T 1465, p. 900a-6); Manjusrimulakalpa (vv. 530-7) and
Taranatha (p. 81). However, this is all scattered information which by no means
constitutes a consistent history.
The Buddhist sources (Divya, p.
433) are mistaken in making Pusyamitra the last of the Mauryas. According to
Panini (IV, 1, 117), the Sungas belonged to the brahmin clan of Bharadvaja and,
according to Kalidasa (Malavika, p. 83), Pusyamitra was of the Baimbika family (kula).
He was commander-in-chief (senani) of Brhadratha, the last of the Mauryas, and
it was in that capacity, say the Purana (P., pp. 31-3),that he overthrew
Brhadratha and wielded kingship for thirty-six years.
The general's treachery is
stigmatized by Bana (Harsacarita p, p.198-9 ) "After having assembled the
whole army on pretext of showing him the forces of the empire, a despicable
general, Puspamitra (sic), slew hismaster the Maurya Brhadratha, a
man who was feeble of purpose".
Pusyamitra ruled in Pataliputra
with the title of general. His possessions extended to the south as far as the
Narmada, to the north-west as far as Jalandhara and Sakala (Punjab). His son,
the crown prince Agnimitra, established his personal court at Vidisa,
present-day Besnagar, in Eastern Malwa, and imprisoned the former "Mauryan
Minister" (Mauryasaciva) who represented the Mauryan legitimacy in Avanti.
The brother-in-law of this minister, Yajnasena, the governor of Berar, deserted
and founded the independent kingdom of Vidarbha (Malavika, p. 10). He
immediately undertook to have his relative liberated.
The minor war of Vidarbha has all
the ingredients of a tragi-comedy.However, Pusyamitra had to face a more
serious danger originating from the North-West frontiers. Renewing the attempts
of Alexander the Great, Seleucus I Nicator and
Antiochus III the Great, Demetrius the king of Bactria and his lieutenants
seized the Punjab and the Sindh, and plunged into the heart of the Indian
empire. We will return later to this expedition, using the Greek and Puranic
sources as a basis. Here, we will simply note that it was confirmed by a
contemporary of Pusyamitra, the grammarian Patanjali. While explaining the
tense of a verb which is required to specify whether it is a recent action
which one could have witnessed, Patanjali gives an example with the phrases :
Arunad Yavano Saketam; Arund Yavano Madhyamikam (Mahabhasya. 111, 2, 11 l),which
means : "[In my time] the Greek besieged Saketa (Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh)
and Madhyamika (Nagari in the former Rajputana, near Chitor)".
However, the enemy advance, which
reached the walls of Pataliputra, was broken by dissensions between the Greeks,
and the army of Demetrius was compelled to withdraw to the Punjab. During this
retreat, some local successes were achieved by the Indians. Vasumitra, the
grandson of Pusyamitra and son of Agnimitra, ambushed a troop of Yavanas on the
southern bank of the Sindhu, i.e. the Indus or, more likely, the Kali Sindhu, a
tributary of the Chambal, which passes some 150 km from Madhyamika.
Pusyamitra announced this success
to Agnimitra in a letter, the text of which is reproduced by the
Malavikagnimitra (pp. 1 1 1-12) :
"Greetings! From the
ritual-ground, the commander-in-chief Pusyamitra affectionately embraces his
son, the Venerable Agnimitra residing in Vidisa, and informs him of this news :
Ready to carry out the sacrifice of the Rajasuya, I entrusted Vasumitra and a
hundred (Indian) princes with the guardianship of the horse (destined for the
sacrifice); then I freed the animal with the order to bring it back at the end
of a year. In fact, while it was on the southern bank of the Sindhu, that horse
was attacked by a troop of Yavanas. There was a brisk engagement between the
two armies. After having vanquished the enemy, Vasumitra, the powerful archer,
returned to me the excellent horse which they had attempted to take from him. I
am now about to proceed with the sacrifice of the horse which my grandson
brought back to me. Come without delay and in peace of mind with my daughters-in-law
in order to attend the sacrifice".
Pusyamitra therefore reinstated
esteem for the old Vedic ritual, which had been neglected by the pro-Buddhist
Mauryas, and in particular performed that horse sacrifice (asvamedha) which
requires no less than a year to complete. Before being immolated the horse
roams freely for a year in the direction of the four cardinal points,
surrounded by the guard of the king who claims the title of universal sovereign
(cakravartin).
Therefore Patanjali, in his
Mahabhasya (III,2, 123), has the brahmins of his time utter the solemn
declaration : Iha Pusyamitram yajayamah "Here we perform sacrifices for
Pusyamitra". A Sunga inscription, which incidentally is the first known
Sanskrit inscription, attributes to the sovereign a dual asvamedha in
celebration of his victories : "This altar was erected in honour of
Phalgudeva, the father of the Dharmaraja ... by Dhana(-deva, -bhuti, etc.),
ruler of Kosala, son of Kausiki, the sixth (son, or successor) of the Senapati
Pusyamitra who twice celebrated the Asvamedha".
As will be seen further on, the
Buddhist sources consider Pusyamitra as a persecutor of Buddhism, and say he
met with an ignominious death. His rule seems to have marked the beginning of a
brahmanical reaction which was to reach full
development five centuries later under Samudragupta and his successors. The
Sungas created an advisory council (sabha) or assembly of ministers
(mantraparisad) in which the Brahmins were in the majority.
THE SUCCESSORS OF PUSYAMITRA (ca
151 -75 B.C.E ). - The adventures of Agnimitra, the viceroy of Vidisa, entitled
Malavikagnimitra. His son Vasumitra or Sumitra, the fourth sunga, distinguished
himself in his youth by the victory of the river Sindhu mentioned above;
however, his taste for the theatre was his downfall : "A great lover of
dramatic plays, he was assailed by Mitradeva amidst his actors and was beheaded
with one blow of a scimitar" (Harsacarita, p. 198).
The fifth Sunga appears in the
Purana under the most various names : Bhadraka, Ardraka or Ordruka, Andhraka,
finally Antaka. The same sources assign him a reign of two or seven years of
rule. An inscription at Pabhosa (LUDERs 904) is dated
the year 10 of a certain Udaka with whom this prince may possibly be
identified. Sir John Marshall also compares him to the king Kasiputra
Bhagabhadra, mentioned on the famous Garuda-pillar found at Vidisa (LUDERs
669).
Under the ninth sunga, Bhaga or
Bhagavata, again in Vidisa, a second Garuda-pillar was erected; it is dated the
twelfth year of the maharaja Bhagavata (Arch. Surv. Ind. An. Rep.. 1913-14, p.
190 sq.).
On the instigation of his
minister Vasudeva, Devabhuti, the last Sunga, was assassinated by the daughter
of a slave who had approached him disguised as the queen (Harsacarita, p. 199).
FEUDATORIES OF THE SUNGAS. -
Whereas the royal house, after having attempted a revival of brahmanism,
finally turned to the Bhagavata religion, its vassals as a general rule
remained faithful to Buddhism.
1.
The
inscriptions enable us to reconstruct the lineage of the petty monarchs of
Bharhut :
Gagi
I
Visadeva = Goti
I
Agaraju = Vachi
I
Dhanabhuti = Nagarakhita
I
Vadhapala
These princes erected the famous
stiipa at Bharhut in central India and decorated it with sculptures :
"In the reign of the Sugas (sungas),
a gateway (torana) was built and sculptures (silakammanta) carved, by order of
Dhanabhuti Vachiputra, the son of Agaraju Gotiputra and grandson of the rajan
Visadeva Gagiputra", (LUDERS 687; BARUA, ).
A cross-piece (suci of the
palisade was a "gift from Nagarakhita, wife of the rajan Dhanabhujti (
LUDERs 882; BARUA1, 15).Another element is the "gift
from Prince Vadhapala, son of the rajan Dhanabhuti" (LUDERs,869; BARUA1,
03).
The memory of the pious family
also remains attached to Buddhist establishments in Mathura, particularly the
"Precious House"; an inscription commemorates "the dedication of
a balustrade (vedika) and gateways (torana) at the Ratnagrha by Vadhapala,
[son] of Dhanabhuti Vatsiputra, in association with his parents and the four
orders (parisa), in homage to all the Buddhas"(LUDERS 25 ).
2. In the year 10 of the reign of
Udaka - who should perhaps be identified with Odruka, the fifth Sunga, - there
ruled in Kausambi a King Bahasatimitra (Brhaspatimitra or Brhatsvatimitra) who
gave evidence of his Buddhist faith by minting coins bearing an Indian ox
before a caitya on the obverse and, on the reverse, a tree surrounded by a
balustrade (CHI, p. 538, pl. V, 2). According to the Pabhosa inscriptions
(LUDERS, 904-5) and inscribed bricks discovered at Ganeshra near Mathura, his
genealogy may be established as follows :
Sonakayana, rajan of Ahicchatra
I
Vamgapala
I
Tevani
I
Rajan Bhagavata = Vaihidari
___________________I__________________
Asadhasena Gopali
I
Bahasatimitra
I
Yasamatam.
a king of Mathura (Gomita?)
Asadhasena, the maternal uncle of
King Bahasamitra, had caves dug in favour of the Buddhist sect of the
Kasyapiyas at Prabhosa, near Kausambi : "Excavation of a cave (lena) by Asadhasena,
son of Gopali Vaihidari and the maternal uncle of the rajan Bahasatimitra, son
of Gopali, for the Kassapiya Arahamtas" (LUDERs 904). - "Excavation
of a cave by Asadhasena, son of Vaihidari and the rajan Bhagavata, son of
Tevani (Traivarni), son of Vamgapala, son of Sonakayana (Saunakayana) rajan of
Ahicchatra" (LUDERs 905).
3. Already before the accession
of the Sungas, a dynasty ruled in Ahicchatra, capital of Pancala (Rohilkhand),
which consisted of no less than a dozen sovereigns. Their names, most of which
end in mitra, are known through coins in the British Museum and the Museum of Lucknow
(ALLAN, CCAI, pp. cxvicxx) : Agnimitra, Bhadraghose, Bhanumitra, Bhumimitra,
Dhruvamitra, Indramitra, Jayagupta, Jayamitra, ,Phalgunimitra, Rudragupta, Suryamitra,
Visnumitra, Visvapala and Brhaspatimitra. To judge from the deities or symbols
which appear on the reverse of their coins, they were worshippers of Agni,
Laksmi, Bhumi, Dhruva (Siva), Visnu or Surya. However, their immediate family certainly
included Buddhist sympathizers : thus an architrave and several pillars of the
palisade of the "Royal Temple" (rajaprasadacaitya) built by Asoka at
Bodh-Gaya are "gifts from Kuramgi, the sister-in-law of Imdagimitra
(Indragnimitra), the daughter of Jiva, to the Royal Temple" (LUDERs 9,3944).
4. Some copper coins, with the
goddess Laksmi on the obverse and three mountend elephants on the reverse,
preserve the names of a dozen of the Sunga vassals who settled in Mathura :
Gomita (II), husband of Yasamata, daughter of Bahasatimitra the king of
Kausambi : Balabhuti; Brahmamitra, etc. Post No. 91 of the palisade at
Bodh-Gaya on which Indra, in the form of Santi, appears in high relief, is a
"gift from Nagadeva, the sister-in-law of King Brahmamitra" (Bodh-Gaya,
p. 58). Some half-hearted attempts have been made to correlate this Brahmamitra
with his homonym, the Bhadramitra of the Mathura coins.
5. The Ayodhya inscription mentioned above (EI, XX, 1929,
p. 57) refers to a Ruler of Kosala who was the sixth (son or successor?) of the
commander-in-chief Pusyamitra. He was possibly related to Dhanabhuti, the petty
monarch of Bharhut.
THE KANVAS (75-30 B.C.E). - "A
minister named Vasudeva will overthrow the dissolute king Devabhumi, on account
of his youth, and this minister will become king of the Sungas. That Kanvayana
will reign for 9 years; his son Bhumitra, 14 years; his son Narayana, 12 years;
his son Susarman, 10 years. They are mentioned as kings subservient to the
Sungas (sungabhrtya) and descendants of the Kanvas (kanvayana). Those four Kanvas
will remain in power for 45 years. Neighbouring princes will submit to them.
They will be righteous. After they have gone, the territory will pass to the
Andhras" (P., p. 34-5).
Summarized in this way by the
Purana, the history of these kings is not known elsewhere but, to judge from
their names, two of them, Vasudeva and Narayana, must have been Visnuites just
like the last Sungas. They were overthrown in approximately 30 B.C.E by the Andhra
king Simuka and his allies who, says the Purana, "will attack the
Kanvayanas and Susarman, destroy whatever remains of the Sungas (Sunganam caiva
yac chesam ) and seize that territory" (P., p. 38). This passage seems to
imply that the Andhras overthrew the Sungas and Kanvas simultaneously, and some
historians have deduced from this that the 45 years of rule assigned to the
Kanvas were included in the 112 years attributed to the Sungas.
Notwithstanding, the Purana categorically assert that Devabhuti, the tenth
sunga, was assassinated by the first Kanva. However, the new dynasty could have
allowed some descendants of the Sungas to continue alongside it, and both would
have been definitively destroyed by the Andhras around 30 B.C.E
BACTRIANS AND INDO-GREEKS:
1. THE GREEK KINGDOM OF BACTRIA-.
Founded about 250 B.C.E by Diodotus I, the Greek kingdom of Bactria was
formally recognized by the Seleucids at the convention of 206 B.C.E concluded
between Antiochus III on the one hand, Euthydemus of Magnesia and his son
Demetrius on the other.
Once the matter was settled,
Antiochus III returned to his states via the Hindukush route, encountering on
his way the Indian king Subhagasena, the last representative of the Mauryas in
the North-West frontiers. Once back in Syria, Antiochus undertook transactions
in the west which were to make him forget the oriental borderlands in his
possession. He concluded a secret treaty with Philip V of Macedonia over the
partition of Egyptian possessions overseas (202 B.C.E). Having become ruler of
Ptolemaic Syria and Palestine (202-198 B.C.E ), he advanced on Europe with the intention
of reconquering Thrace (196 B.C.E). The Seleucid intervention in the Mediterranean
basin was a source of anxiety to the Roman senate. Legions were sent to meet
Antiochus, who lost the battles of Thermopylae and Magnesia under Sipylos and
suffered a severe naval defeat at Corycus. Through the peace of Apamea
concluded in 188 B.C.E, the Seleucid empire ceased to be a Mediterranean power,
and the following year Antiochus fell to the blows of an assassin. Meanwhile,
the kings of Bactria had not waited for his death to cross the frontiers of
India, which had been poorly defended since the humiliation inflicted on the Indian
king Subhagasena in about 206 B.C.E.
End of the reign of Euthydemus
(205-189 B.C.E). - Towards the year 200 B.C.E, Euthydemus crossed the passes of
the Afghan massif and took possession of the Paropamisadae, Arachosia and
Seistan. In fact, even if this silver coins of the
"Profile of the Prince : Hercules seated on a rock" type are
particularly numerous to the north of the Hindukush, in Balkh (Bactria) and
Bukhara (Sogdiana), his bronze coins of the "Profile of Hercules :
Galloping Horse" type are widespread in the regions of Kabul, Kandahar and
Seistan. However, the legend remains exclusively Greek. The king died in about
189 B.C.E, leaving it to his son Demetrius to continue those conquests.
Demetrius (ca 189-167 B.C.). -
Demetrius was to add to his title of king of Bactria that of the king of the Indians.
His coinage was to bear traces of this new status. On his silver tetradrachms,
the prince appears with an (Indian) elephant-hide head-dress and there is also
an elephant's head on his bronze coins.
The patient research by Tam has traced
his family. Demetrius was descended from Eulhydemus of Magnesia and the
daughter of the Bactrian general Diodotus. His brother and colleagues were
Antimachus I and Apollodotus; he had five children : Euthydemus II, Demetrius
II, Pantaleon, Agathocles and Agathocleia, the future wife of General Menander.
At the time Demetrius assumed power,
the Mauryan empire was on the point of collapsing, and the successive defeats
of Antiochus III led to the fall of the Seleucids. The king of Bactria decided
to take advantage of these circumstances to carve out a vast empire for himself
in India.
1. During the first campaign
which took place between 187 B.C.E and 182 B.C.E, Demetrius took possession of
Gandhara, the Punjab and the Indus valley, and established his capital in
Taxila. However, the city was transferred from Bhir Mound to Sirkap, on the
other side of the Tamrapali; a new town was laid out on the chequer-board plan
characteristic of Hellenistic cities. This is still easily recognizable despite
the three centuries of Greek, Scythian, Parthian and Kusana occupation, a
period when the city was transferred to Sirsukh.
As Demetrius was fully occupied
with his military projects, he entrusted the administration of his states to
viceroys chosen from among members of his family : Antimachus at Herat,
Demetrius II in Gandhara, Pantaleon and Agathocles in Taxila (until 175 B.C.E).
A square-shaped coin is attributed to Demetrius II; the obverse represents the
prince with a head-dress of an elephant's scalp, and the reverse, a winged
thunderbolt; the coin is inscribed with a bilingual legend in Greek and
Kharosthi :, Maharajusa aparajitasa Demetriyusa.
2. The collapse of the Mauryan
empire in 187 B.C.E and the assumption of power by the commander-in-chief Pusyamitra
incited Demetrius to continue his march eastward. From the region of Sindh, he
launched a pincer attack which very nearly led to the downfall of Pusyamitra. A
Yavana army, commanded by Apollodotus, skirted the Indian desert towards the
south-east, entered Kathiawar, Gujarat and Milwa and seized the viceroyalty of
Ujjayini as well as the important port of Bharukaccha. Simultaneously, General
Menander, at the head of another invading army, thrust in the direction of thc
Ganges, seized Sakala, Mathura and Saketa in turn and laid siege to
Pataliputra. In approximately the year 180 B.C.E, the Bactrians were in full
possession of the two Indian provinces of Eastern Punjab (Sakala ) and Avanti
(Ujjayini) and were a dangerous threat to the capital. Demetrius held
territories which extended from eastern Iran to the Middle Ganges and from Russian
Turkestan to the peninsula of Kathiawar. The Latin historian Justin (XLI, 6, 4)
was quite correct in assigning to him the title of Rex Indorum.
The Greek and Indian sources have
retained the memory of these memorable events, but unfortunately do not go into
details.
Here we should reproduce the
often quoted passage by Strabo (XI, ii, 1, p. 516) :
"Bactria, the northern
frontier of which borders on Aria for a certain distance, far exceeds that
country in the eastern direction. It is considerable in extent and its soil is
suitable for all kinds of cultivation, except for that of olive trees. Thanks
to its immense resources, the Greeks who had detached it [from the Seleucid
empire] soon became so powerful that they could seize Ariana and India herself,
according to Apollodorus of Arternita, and that their kings, especially
Menander, if it is true that he crossed the Hypanis [Hyphasis or Beas ] and
advanced eastwards as far as the Isamus [lomanes or Yamuni, a tributary of the
Ganges; Icchumai, in Skt. Iksumati, the present-day Kannadi, a river of Pancala
in the region of Kanauj; more probably Soamus or Sona, a tributary of the right
bank of the Ganges, the confluence of which is situated near Pataliputra], finally
numbered more subjects and dependents than Alexander ever had, thanks to the
conquests made not only by Menander in person but also by Demetrius, son of the
Bactrian king Euthydemus. We should add that, on the sea-board, not content
with occupying the whole of Patalene [Sindh], they also took possession of the
nearby coastland, namely the kingdoms of Saraostos [Surastra, i.e. Kathiawar and
Gujarat] and Sigerdis [Sagaradvipa, or the Kutch peninsula]. In short,
Apollodorus was right to call Bactria the boulevard of Ariana, the kings of
that country having pushed their conquests as far as the frontiers of the Seres
and Phruni [in Central Asia]
It appears from another passage
by Strabo (XV, 1,27, p. 698) that the Greek thrust reached Pataliputra :
"Of the eastern part of
India we only know what is on this side of the Hypanis [Hyphasis or Beas] and
what has been added by others who, after Alexander, penetrated beyond the
Hypanis as far as the Ganges and Palibothra [ Pataliputra ]
The exploits which Strabo assigns
here to Menander and Demetrius are attributed to Apollodotus and Menander by
Pompeius Trogus (Justin, XLI, Prologue).
The Indian sources confirm the
Greek evidence in their own way. As we saw above, Patanjali in his Mahabhasya
(111, 1, I l I) notes that in his time : "the Greek besieged Saketa and
Madhyamika"; Saketa is a town in Kosala, very near Ayodhya; Madhyamiki is
Nagari, near Chitor, in the former Rajputana.
In the detestable prophetic style
of the Purana, the Gargi Samhita (YP., 94-1 16) deplores the Greek advance up
to the walls of the capital and the confusion it led to in Indian society
itself :
"Having conquered Saketa [Ayodhya],
the Pancalas [Doab] and Mathura, the wicked but valiant Yavanas will reach
Kusumadhvaja [Pataliputra]. Once the thick walls of Puspapura [Pataliputra]
have been reached, all the provinces will be thrown into confusion. Finally, a
great battle with swords and bludgeons will take place. At the end of the yuga,
there will be irreligious Anaryans; Brahmana, Ksatriya, Vaisya and Sudra will
be inferior men, making use of the same clothes and customs. Men will join the
heretics and conclude alliances for women. There will be base bhiksuka, dressed
in the religious robe, wearing their hair in plaits and bark clothing; those
men of lowly caste, [improvised guardians] of the three fires, will offer
oblations, unscrupulously, with hymns beginning with the Omkara. , Sudras will
challenge the brahmins with "Bho!" and the brahmins will greet them
with the word "Arya". The ancient Tama of Dharmamita [Demetrius] will
devour the people. The Yavanas will be in command and the princes will
disappear.However, the Yavanas. intoxicated with warfare, will not remain in
Madhyadesa. A civil war will break out among them; on their own territory, a
terrible, extremely murderous battle will take place and it will result in the
complete destruction of the Yavanas".
Meanwhile Demetrius, called
Dattamitra in the Mahabharata (I, 139, 23), did not remain inactive; his name
remains attached to numerous Demetriads founded by himself : Tarmita, Termez in
Sogdiana, is mentioned by the name of Dharmamitra in a Sanskrit text translated
into Tibetan (JA, 1933, p. 27, n. 1); a Demetrias-polis is recorded in the Stationes
Parthicae (19) of Isidorus of Charax; a Dattamitri in Sauvira (Sindh) is reported
by the grammarian Kramadisvara (p. 796); finally, an inscription at Nasik
(LUDERs 11, 40), records a "Yonaka from Otarika", i.e. a Greek from
the North, a native of a Dattimitri, otherwise unspecified.
It does not seem as though
Apollodotus continued his advance towards Vidisa, the second most important
town of the Sunga kingdom, where Pusyamitra's son, Agnimitra, was living. We
saw previously, on the evidence of the Mulavikagnimitra (pp. 1 1 1 - 12), how
Vasumitra routed a troop of Yavanas on the bank of the Kali Sindhu. Some writers
think that from 175 B.C.E on Apollodotus, at the request of his brother, was
viceroy of Taxila.
3. The civil war destroyed the
work of the Greeks in eastern Iran and India. The eastward transfer of Bactrian
power left the western frontiers dangerously depleted. The Indians themselves
became aware that the dissension among the Greeks militated in their favour;
apart from the Gargi Samhita (1.c.) which attributes the evacuation of
Madhyedesa to the civil war breaking out "on the very territory" of
the Yavanas, the Purana (P., p. 56) state that the Yavana usurpers
"devoted to blameworthy practices owing to the decadence of the times,
massacred each other".
Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175-163
B.C.E), the last great Seleucid king, attempted to restore the Syrian empire and
save it from disintegration by means of a policy of in-depth Hellenization. His
intervention in Egypt (169 B.C.E.) and contentions with the Jews (168 B.C.E)
did not prevent him from assessing the threat which the growing power of
Demetrius presented to his eastern frontiers. It is possible that he charged one
of his lieutenants, Eucratides, with restoring the Seleucid legitimacy in
Bactria. Tarn makes this Eucratides the true cousin of Antiochus IV. In any case,
royal blood flowed in his veins. The joined busts of his parents, the satrap
Heliocles (bareheaded) and the Seleucid princess Laodice (diadem head-dress),
appear on silver tetradrachms which Eucratides had struck after his successes
in Bactria.
The campaign began in about the
year 168 B.C.E, but historical details are lacking. It is probable that
Eucratides, taking advantage of the absence of Demetrius who was detained in
his Indian possessions, hustled his viceroys, Agathocles in Arachosia-Seistan,
Antimachus at Herat, and victoriously entered Bactria. Struck from behind,
Demetrius probably ordered Menander to withdraw from the Ganges region and
entrench himself in the eastern Punjab. He himself returned hurriedly to
Bactria to restore the situation. It was doubtless there that, about the years 168
B.C.E or 167 B.C.E, he was able to take his stand against his rival. The
encounter concluded with the total defeat and undoubtedly the death of
Demetrius and several of his lieutenants. Justin (XLI, 6, 4) sums up the
operation in a few lines : "Although his forces were depleted, Eucratides,
besieged by Demetrius the king of the Indians, made continual sallies and, with
300 soldiers, defeated a force of 60,000 (sic) enemies. Having compelled the
siege to be raised, he reduced India to subjection".
Thus in 167 B.C.E, on the death
of Demetrius, there remained two Greek enemy kingdoms : the western Greek kingdom
ruled by Eucratides and comprising Bactria, Sogdiana, Aria, Seistan and
Arachosia; the eastern Greek kingdom ruled by the Euthydemid Apollodotus I
(territories situated west of the Jhelum : Western Punjab, Gandhara and Kapisa)
and the general Menander (territories located to the east of same river : eastern
Punjab).
The two rival kingdoms each
developed on their own account, but the only information that can be gathered
regarding them is provided by some inscriptions and numerous coins the
interpretation of which is mostly hypothesis : "Every minor prince has
ambassadors, every large town strikes coins; the coins are re-struck; the place
where they are found is not always an indication of their origin; the effigy of
the prince outlives his reign" (after A. Foucher).
2. THE EASTERN GREEK KINGDOM
(167-30 B.C.E). - This was ruled Over by princes who, while remaining faithful
to Hellenic customs and traditions, understood the Indian population, respected
its beliefs and showed themselves favourable to Buddhism.
1. Apollodotus I (ca 167-163 B.C.E).
- Apollodotus, the brother of Demetrius, occupied, from approximately 175
B.C.E, the viceroyalty of the Western Punjab (Taxila). Despite the victory of
Eucratides over Demetrius and his lieutenants, he.
continued to rule for some time over the territories situated to the west of
the Jhelum, with the title of Maharajasa Apaladatasa Tradarasa. He appealed to
thc patronage of Apollo, as is apparent from copper coins of the "Apollo :
tripod" type struck in his effigy. On the other hand, silver coins of the
"Elephant : Indian buffalo" type show that he wielded power over the
town of Taxila in the Eastern Punjab (symbolized by the elephant) and over that
of Puskaravati in Gandhara (represented by Siva's Indian buffalo).
However, in about 164 B.C.E
Eucratides, who had already seized Bactria, Sogdiana, Aria, Seistan and
Arachosia from the Euthydemids, continued his march forward. He took possession
of Kapisa (Paropamisadae) and Gandhara, and reached the Indus. It is doubtful
whether he crossed that river and got to Taxila. Apollodotus died during the
combats between himself and Eucratides, but his states were saved and recovered
by the general Menander who was allied to the Euthydemid family through his
marriage to Agathocleia.
2. Menander (ca 163-150 B.C.E). -
The most famous of the Indo- Greek kings was Menander, Mememdra on coins,
Minadra on inscriptions, Milinda in Pali, Minara in Taranitha. The Milindapanha
(pp. 82- 3), says he was born "in the village of Kalasi. in the dipa of
Alasanda, two hundred yojana (leagues) from the town of Sagala". According
to this indication, Menander was a native of Kavisi (Kapisi) in the district of
Alexandria-under-the-Caucasus situated approximately 200 leagues from Shakala
in the eastern Punjab : one may suppose, as did A.Foucher, that his father was
Greek and his mother a native, and being of mixed blood, he was particularly capable
of understanding both the Hellenic and Indian worlds. However, the Chinese
translation of the Milindapanha (tr. DEMIEVILLE p,p . 30, 168) says he was born
"beside the sea, in the land of Ta ch'in (Hellenic East), the country of A
li sun situated who thousand yojana (from Sakala) equivalent to eighty thousand
Ii" : which leads us to Alexandria in Egypt.
However that may be, Menander was,
together with Apollodotus I the best supporter of the Euthydemid throne. In his
capacity as one of the generals of Demetrius, he led a Yavana army across Doab
and Oudh as far as the walls of Pataliputra (ca 180 B.C.E). When the surprise
attack by Eucratides compelled Demetrius to withdraw from the Ganges basin, Menander
entrenched himself with his army in the Eastern Punjab (167 B.C.E); it was
doubtless about the same time that he married Agathocleia, the daughter of
Demetrius, and set up his headquarters at Sakala. After the rout and death of
Apollodotus (ca 163 B.C.E) and the occupation of the Paropamisadae and Gandhara
by Eucratides, Menander recovered all the Euthydernid possessions. Shortly
afterwards, he succeeded in regaining Gandhara, but had to abandon Kapisa to
his enemy. Finally, after the defeat inflicted on Eucratides by the Parthian
king Mithridates (l59 B.C.E), Menander seems to have re-established his
authority over Arachosia.
The Milindapaiha opens with an
idyllic description of the town of Sakala over which Menander ruled, surrounded
by a praetorian guard of 500 Yavanas and assisted by ministers with Greek names
(p. 29) : Devamantiya (Demetrius?), Anantakaya (Antiochus), Mankura (Pacorus)
and Sabbadinna (Sabbadotus?). Sakala (Pili, Sagala) has been identified with
the present-day town of Sialkot, between the Chenab and the Ravi. It is
mentioned in the Mahabharata (11, 32, 14) and the Divyavadana (. 434). We know
from the geographer Ptolemy (VII, 1,46) that it was also called Euthydemia
(variant : Euthymedia). In the former case, it is believed that the Greeks,
Menander in this instance, so named it in memory of the glorious lineage of the
Indo-Greek kings commenced by Euthydemus of Magnesia. In the latter case, it is
thought that Euthymedia is an allusion to Menander's conversion to Buddhism,
the Greek term ~68upq6ia appearing as the literal translation of the Buddhist word
samyaksamkalpa "right resolve" presented by the Buddha as one of the
eight limbs of the noble eightfold Path to Nirvana.
Menander's states were very extensive.
It is possible, but not certain, that in the east the king's sway included the
town of Mathura, capital of the Surasena district on the Yamuna. However, the
region did not take long to become a Sunga fief under the authority of Indian
princes of whom coins and some inscriptions have retained the names.
To the west of the Indus, vast
territories were governed by Menander's viceroys, who were chosen from among
both the natives and the Greeks :
1. In Gandhara, to judge from the
coins, Antimachus II, Polyxenus and Epander ruled as viceroys of Menander and
Strato I.
2. In Uddiyina, or to be more precise
in the district of Bajaur situated twenty miles to the west of the confluence
of the Panjkora and the Swat, the Indian petty monarch Viyakamitra, who installed
a relic of the Buddha in the Shinkot stupa (EI, XXIV, 1937, p. 7), claimed to
be a contemporary and vassal of Menander.
Conversely, the Kohistanese
region of Kapisa remained in the hands of Eucratides who began the minting in
Kapisi of coins of the "Enthroned Zeus" type which were
characteristic of the area.
3. Also dependents of Menander
were Sindh, Kaccha (Kutch peninsula), Surastra (Kathiawar and Gujarat) as well
as the coastal region as far as the port of Bharukaccha (Broach). Indeed, the
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (47) shows that, until the end of the first
century C.E., "still current in Barygaza were ancient drachmas carved with
Greek characters and bearing the effigy of those who ruled after Alexander : Apollodotus
and Menander".
4. Finally, in approximately 159
B.C.E, the date at which the Parthian king Mithridates seized part of
Eucratides' possessions in Aria and Arachosia, Menander seems to have reconquered
Eastern Arachosia, where he was represented by the viceroy Zoilus.
There are plenty of different
types of Menander's coinage, such as "Nike", "Bucephala"
and especially "Athena Promachos". The legend is bilingual, Maharajasa
tratarasa Menemdrasa. The title of "Saviour", already adopted by
Apollodotus I, seems to indicate that the Euthydemids of the eastern kingdom
set themselves up as defenders, not only of the Yavanas, but also of the Buddhists
of the North-West and the former supporters of the Mauryan legitimacy against
the usurper Pusyamitra. While not being specifically Buddhist, the symbol of
the eight-spoked wheel which appears on Menander's coins could not fail to
evoke either the figure of a "King of the Dharma" such as the Buddha,
or again that of a Cakravartin or universal conqueror.
As much from the Indian as the
Greek side, Menander was considered as a Buddhist holy one. Further on, we will
examine if not the cogency, at least the developments of that tradition.
3. Strato I and his successors (150-30
B.C.E). - On the death of Menander which occurred in about the year 150 B.C.E,
his son Strato had still not come of age. His mother Agathocleia therefore
wielded power as a regent. A copper coin of the "Seated Heracles"
type represents on the observe the bust of the queen and on the reverse
Heracles seated on a rock with the legend Maharajasa tratarasa dhramikasa
Stratasa.
At a later stage, Strato and his
mother reigned together. Silver. Coins of the "Athena Promachos" type
represent their busts side by side. In the end, Strato wielded power alone, and
struck silver coins, still of the "Athena Promachos" type, on which
he appears in turn in the form of a helmeted young man, then as a bearded adult
and finally as a frail old man.
At the beginning of his reign, the
Western Punjab (Taxila) and Gandhara (Puskaravati) still formed part of his
possessions, as is apparently established on the one hand by copper coins of
the "Apollo :tripod" type, copied from Apollodotus I, and on the
other, by copper coins of the "Bust of Heracles : Nike" type. Maharajasa
pracachasa tratarasa Stratasa.
However, Strato was unable to
maintain the integrity of Menander's kingdom for very long. Certain coins of
the Bactrian king Heliocles show the humped bull of Gandhara and the elephant
of Taxila, and other coins of Strato, of the "Nike" type, were
restruck in the name of Heliocles. It can be concluded from this that at a
certain date (145 B.C.E) Heliocles seized Arachosia, Gandhara, Taxila and Sind
Sagar Doab from Strato. Driven back to the west of the Jhelum, Strato and his
successors were relegated to the band of territory situated between that river
and the Yamuna, with the capital Sakala in Rechna Doab.
The successors of Strato,
Apollodotus II, Dionysius and Zoilus, continued to strike copper coins of the
"Apollo : tripod" type and silver coins of the "Athena
Promachos" type, the latter marked with an identical monogram. On the
other hand, "Athena Promachos" coins exist on which the legend
associates the name of Strato I with that of his grandson Strato II as, Maharajanam
tratarasa Stratasa potrasa casa priyapita- Stratasa.
The eastern Greek kingdom disappeared
in about the year 30 B.C.E through the conquest of the Saka Azes I, and, as a
sign of his victory, the Scythian king in turn struck coins bearing the Athene
Promachos on the reverse.
3. THE WESTERN GREEK KINGDOM (ca
164-90 B.C.E). - The second volet of the diptych is filled with the feats of
the western Greek kingdom which was founded by Eucratides after his victory
over Demetrius. At the risk of being repetitive, we
must summarize here the main stages of its history.
1. Eucratides (ca 164-158 B.C.E).
- a. In approximately the year 168-167 B.C.E, at the request of the Seleucid
Antiochus IV, Eucratides, the son of Princess Laodice, attacked the Bactro-Indian
empire of the Euthydemid Demetrius. The latter besieged him with superior
forces in Bactria, but Eucratides weakened his adversary by continual sallies
and finally triumphed. He immediately seized Bactria, Sogdiana, Aria, Seistan
and Arachosia.
The successes Eucratides achieved
in the eastern satrapies did not prevent his suzerain Antiochus IV from
suffering serious disasters elsewhere : the ultimatum from the consul Popilius
Laenas forced him to evacuate Egypt (169- 168 B.C.E ); the persecuted Jews
rebelled (168-167 B.C.E ), and Antiochus IV met his death during an expedition
against Artaxias in Armenia (164 B.C.E). The Seleucid empire immediately
disintegrzited; almost everywhere, the satraps established their independence
and Eucratides proclaimed himself great king of Bactria. His first coins are
silver tetradrachms which reveal the aristocratic beauty of the prince : on the
obverse, the bust of the diademed king, with or without a helmet, his shoulders
covered or bare backed; on the reverse, the Dioscuri, with pilei headdresses
charging on horseback.
Strabo (XI, 11, 2, p. 516) is
impressed by the might of the new king :
"The kings of Bactria had
more than one important town in their states : first Bactra, or as it is
sometimes called Zariaspa, through which flows a river of the same name, a
tributary of the Oxus; then Adraspa and several others more. Among the number
of principal towns in the country there also appeared Eucratidaea, thus named
after the [Greek] king [who had founded it]. Once they were masters of Bactria,
the Greeks [following the example of the Persians] had subdivided it into
satrapies"
b. Administrative worries were
not enough to quell the warlike ardour of the king of Bactria : "Eucratides
waged several wars with great courage ... and reduced India into his
power" (Justin, XLI, 6, 4).
Details are lacking regarding
that Indian campaign which, between the years 163 B.C.E and 160 B.C.E, led
Eucratides to triumph over the two Euthydemids Apollodotus I and Menander, but
the bilingual coins show that the Basileus megas in turn considered himself as
a maharaja.
Coinage once again enables us to
follow his progress eastwards in the direction of the Indus.
Crossing the Hindukush,
Eucratides first of all seized the Paropamisadae, or Kapisa, which was long to
remain a fief coveted by the western Greek kingdom. As a mark of his victory,
he minted copper coins of the "City of Kapisi" type : on the obverse,
the bust of the helmeted king; on the reverse, Zeus enthroned between two
emblems, the forepart of an elephant to the left and a mountain to the right,
with the legend Kavisiye nagara devata "divinity of the town of Kapisi”.
Continuing his march eastwards,
Eucratides wrested Gandhara from Apollodotus, and in that region minted copper
coins of the "Nike with garland and palm" type and the legend Maharajasa
Evukratitasa.
It is possible, but not certain,
that the conqueror crossed the Indus and seized the town of Taxila. In any case,
he was the first to strike silver coins bearing the "Pilei of the Dioscuri"
on the reverse, a type proper to the town of Taxila and which was used after
him by a long series of sovereigns.
Eucratides' seizure of the Kabul
valley led to the disappearance of his rival, King Apollodotus (163 B.C.E), but
the eastern Greek kingdom was saved by Menander who was able to take advantage
of favourable political circumstances in order partly to restore the empire of
Euthydemus.
c. The end of Eucratides' rcign
was marked by an eclipse in power. First of all, he was expulsed from Gandhiira
- but not from Kapisa - by Menander, and it was the latter's turn to have his
coins struck with the "Winged Victory" characteristic of the region.
However, the most dangerous enemy
for the new Indo-Greek kingdom, as, moreover, for the Seleucid empire, was the
Parthian king Mithridates I or Arsaces VI (171-138 B.C.E) of whom Eucratides
was contemporary, as Justin (XLI, 6. 1) remarks. Between the years 160 B.C.E and
140 B.C.E, Mithridates, the true founder of Parthian power, was to deprive the Seleucids
and their vassals of Media, Persia and Susiana, and settle in Mesopotamia
where, facing Seleucia, he established a vast military camp which was later to
become the Parthian capital, Ctesiphon. The resistance offered by Syria
resulted in a humiliating defeat : Demetrius II Nicator was beaten and captured
(140-139 B.C.E).
Eucratides was the first victim
of the Parthian advance. At the very beginning of the campaign, in about 159
B.C.E, "two satrapies known as Aspionus and Turiva were wrested from the
Bactrians by the Parthians, in the reign of Eucratides" (Strabo, XI, 11,
2, p. 517). In all probability these were two districts in Aria, Tapuria and
Traxiana, the former situated on the Upper Atrek and the latter in the valley
of Kasaf-rud, both around present-day Meched.
Eucratides, who was absent at the
time of the sudden attack, hastened to return to his states :
"On his return, he was
assassinated on the road by his son with whom he had shared the empire and who,
without concealing his patricide and as if he had killed an enemy and not a
father, drove his chariot over the bleeding body and had it cast away
unburied" (Justin, XLI, 6, 5)
Menander took advantage of these
events to recover Eastern Arachosia, as seems to be indicated by coinage of the
"Elephant and Club type which that prince struck, the club being the
symbol of Heracles whose connection with Arachosia is attested by subsequent
coinage.
2. Heliocles (ca 158-135 B.C.E).
- The successor of Eucratides was Heliocles, possibly the patricidal son whose
name Justin does not state. He also was more an Indian than a Greek king.
Without assessing the danger to
Bactria, caused by Scythian nomad incursions and Parthian ambitions, he yielded
to the Indian phantasm and attempted to win back the states which had been
wrested from his father by Menander and Strato I.
In approximately the year 145
B.C.E, making Kapisa the base of his operations, he advanced eastward and
southward, and succeeded in taking Arachosia, Gandhara, Taxila and Sind Sagar
Doiab from Strato I, achieving much greater success than did Eucratides.
However, here again, the coinage is the only source of information.
a. For Bactria and Arachosia,
"Standing Zeus", holding a thunderbolt in his right hand and a
sceptre in his left.
b. For Kapisa or the
Paropamisadae, "Enthroned Zeus", a type which Eucratides was the
first to strike.
c. For Gandhara and Taxila
together, copper coins of the "Elephant : Indian Buffalo" type, first
minted by Apollodotus I, the elephant representing Taxila and the buffalo (of
Siva), Gandhara
d. For Taxila alone, Heliocles
invented the copper "Bust of the king: Elephant", and one of his
successors, Antialcidas, continued to strike it. Heliocles was the last
Indo-Greek king to rule simultaneously over Bactria and North-West India, on
both sides of the Hindukush. However, perpetual warfare had exhausted the
Bactrians
"Tossed from war to war,
they lost not only their empire but also their freedom. Exhausted by their wars
against the Sogdians, Arachosians, Drangians, Arians and Indians, they finally
fell, as if worn out, under the yoke of the Parthians who until then had been
weaker than them" (Justin, XLI, 6, 3)".
In fact, in about the year 140
B.C.E, after an important transfer of populations to which we will refer further
on, the Greeks had to abandon Bactria to the nomads and withdraw to the south
of the Hindukush. Heliocles' states were reduced to the Kabul valley and the
Western Punjab; to the east of the Jhelum they were adjacent to the possessions
of Strato and his successors. Heliocles seems to have settled in Taxila, leaving
viceroys - Diomedes, Philoxenus, Artemidorus and Peucolaus - to govern the
district of Puskarivati in Gandhira. In fact, all those princes struck coins of
the "Puskaravati Goddess : Indian Buffalo" type, with the Prakrit
legend Pakhalavadi devada, usabhe. The goddess in question appears in the form
of a native woman (coins of Philoxenus) or again in that of Artemis (coins of
Artemidorus and Peucolaus). The very name of Peucolaus is derived from the toponym
Peucolaitis or Peucelaotis, the Greek transcription of Puskaravati.
3. Lysias (ca 135-125 B.C.). - Lysias
succeeded Heliocles on the throne of Taxila and awarded himself the title of
invincible : Maharajasa apadihatasa Lisikasa. His silver coins of the
"Standing Heracles" type, copied from Demetrius, link him with
Arachosia. He may have started as a viceroy in Arachosia, under Heliocles,
before accompanying the latter to the Punjab.
4. Antialcidas (ca 125-100 B.C.).
- A single copper coin exists which associates Lysias and Antialcidas : the
name of the former appears on the obverse with a bust of Heracles, that of the
latter on the reverse with the "Pilei of the Dioscuri". This connection
is an indication of an immediate succession.
An inscription from Vidisa,
present-day Besnagar (LUDERS 669), has Antialcidas reign in Taxila, and gives
him as a contemporary of the Indian king Kasiputra Bhagabhadra who we believe
may have been the fifth Sunga known to the Purana by the name of Bhadraka :
"That Garudadhvaja (pillar surmounted by a Garuda bird) of Vasudeva (Visnu),
god of gods, was erected by Heliodora (Heliodoms), a follower of the Bhagavat,
son of Diya (Dion) and an inhabitant of Taksasila who came as the Greek
ambassador (yavanaduta) of the great king Amtalikita (Antialcidas) to king Kasiputra
Bhagabhadra, the saviour (tratara), in the fourtheenth year of his reign".
This is an attempt to connect a
Greek sovereign, Antialcidas, with an Indian king of the Sunga dynasty,
Bhagabhadra. The first relations between the Yavanas and Sungas were of a
distinctly offensive nature :
the Euthydemids Demetrius,
Apollodotus I and Menander had brought war to the very heart of the Indian
kingdom then, after the constitution of the eastern Greek kingdom, Apollodotus
and Menander had set themselves up as "Saviours", ( tratara) of the
Buddhist Indians against the endeavours of Pusyamitra who posed as a restorer
of brahmanical institutions. Relations were doubtless no better between the last
Euthydemids, Strato I and his successors, who were still favourable to
Buddhism, and the last Sungas, Bhadraka, etc., who had turned to the religion
of the Bhagavatas and favoured Visnuite propaganda in the region of Vidisa, in
Avanti. As representative of the western Greek kingdom founded by Eucratides
and Heliocles, Antialcidas, profiting from that antagonism, attempted to
inflict a fatal blow on his rivals, the Euthydemids of the eastern kingdom. Once
he had been informed of the sympathy nurtured by the Indian king Bhagabhadra
for Visnuism, he sent him as ambassador a Greek from Taxila named Dio, who was
also an adhercnt of the Bhagavata religion. When he reached Vidisa, the ambassador
erected a pillar surmounted by a Garuda in honour of Visnu. This converted
Greek could not fail to be welcome at the Sunga court. Doubtless, his activity
was not limited to that pious gesture : it can be supposed that he negotiated
an alfiance between Antialcidas and Bhagabhadra, directed against the eastern
Greek kingdom. Nevertheless, the latter survived until the arrival of the Saka
hordes.
Antialcidas left silver coins
representing on the obverse the bust of the king, wearing a diadem or a helmet and
carrying the kausia; on the reverse Zeus enthroned, a type introduced by
Eucratides in Kapisi. The copper coins are of the "Bust of the King :
Taxilan Elephant" type or, more often, "Bust of Zeus : Pilei of the
Dioscuri" a type first struck by Eucratides in Taxila.
5. Archebius (ca 100-90 B.C.E). -
The "Pilei of the Dioscuri" which appear in turn on the reverse of
the coins of Eucratides, of Lysias and Antialcidas together, and finally of Antialcidas
alone, are again found on the coins of the Maharasajasa dhramikasa jayadharasa
Arkhebiyasa. From this we can conclude that Archebius immediately succeeded
Antialcidas as king of Taxila. After his time, the western Punjab fell into the
hands of the Sakas of Maues, and it was the turn of a Scythian satrap, Liaka
Kusulaka, to strike coins of the "Pilei of the Dioscuri" type copied,
it is true. not from Archebius directly, but from his distant predecessor Eucratides.
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